Does bottom-up approach works better for underclasses in welfare state?

By Pankaj Prasad and Arun Agarwal

(Working professionals, Alumni of Delhi College of Engineering)

A kaleidoscopic view of society

French sociologist and philosopher David Emile Durkheim stated that social factors (constraints) prevail over individual’s act. Steel frame of society forces each individual member to conform to its rules, regulations and norms. In Durkheim’s society individual free will is subject to checks and balances of external social structure not affected by individual.

Socialist revolutionary and German philosopher Karl Marx saw societies made up of different classes due to unequal ownership of resources. These classes are in constant conflict with each other. Social change is result of inevitable class conflict, triggering interclass struggle to overthrow control of resources by capitalists.

Another German philosopher and sociologist Max Weber was convinced that in any society human motivation, ideas and beliefs had power to bring about social transformations. In Weber’s society individuals have ability to act freely and shape their future. Society imposes no constraints and its structures are amalgamable outcome of individual actions.

Above three descriptions of society also capture transformation of earliest societies of 3500 BC to present day post-modern ones. Through this long journey of approximately 5500 years, iron grip of society over individual, has been steadily loosened. Never before, individual had come as close to be master of writing own destiny.

Since a society is also an interdependent web of economic systems, it is pertinent to discuss Scottish philosopher and economist Adam Smith here. He saw two underlying themes that form backbone of a society. Division of labour a functional system that keeps running complex societies and the invisible hand of self-interested individuals fuelling its progress.

In the beginning, hunters and gatherers formed primitive societies of nomadic nature. Here division of labour was need based. Social structure was simple and flat. However as the man started settling in pastoral and agrarian societies, more complex functional socio-economic systems formed. Different sub-systems worked similar to different organs of human body, providing stability to whole society. In such society social and economic stratification was inevitable consequence of division of labour. Most of pre-industrialised world had agrarian societies. These societies were closer to Durkheim’s description of rigid structures. These stable societies lasted over many millennia and definitely had discrimination inbuilt into very structure that was symbiotic in nature. Different functional parts of society were inter-dependent on each other.

Historically four types of stratification could be seen in human societies. Slavery as extreme form of inequality was widespread in most of the world including Arab world-Ottoman Empire. Here some humans were property of others. Slavery was present as recently as 1962 in Saudi Arabia. Caste-Jaati or social hierarchy based discrimination was another form of inequality which had functional basis of division of labour explained by Adam Smith. Here also some strata in social hierarchy were exploitative and other strata were exploiters. Estates were feudal societies of Europe. Here churches-the first estate and Nobles-the second estate had control over third estate of sirfs and artisans. Again these feudal societies had functional division of labour stratification. Another form of social inequality that appeared in later stages of human societies was class system. Inequality in form of slavery, Caste and serfdom were birth based social inequality, a baggage from past. USA, one of the oldest democratic nation-state allowed black women voting rights in 1965 only. Most modern societies tried to eliminate birth based discrimination using legal measures and affirmative actions. However class system as mode of socio-economic inequality is now accepted as integral part of present societies though it is as pernicious as birth based inequality. In post-modern capitalist world, it is assumed that individual’s class is considered as achievable, not given at birth. (S)he is free to act and move upwards through classes. On the top of this class system are elites-who own and control capital, means of production and property. On bottom of this social class pyramid are underclass- a product of capitalism, needed to be supported through welfare state measures. Working class that is willing to provide labour and skills to elites is sandwiched between two. Tremendous scientific and technological progress was made in this era. But even in this capitalist post-modern society, different type of birth based inequality exits. Many studies confirm that family background plays vital role in child’s successes. Again presence of homeless, jobless people at bottom of post-modern societies of highly developed countries is extreme form of inequality prevalent today.

March from theocracy to Democracy

On political front French Revolution (1789–1799), accompanied with extreme violence, demolished the old social order and stranglehold of both Church and Feudal lords across Europe. It triggered a global movement to replace old monarchies with liberal democracies. Later rationalism and capitalism created surge in inequality based on wealth. New sets of elites emerged whom German sociologist Robert Michels named oligarchs.

Rise of Communism

Marxian social tension and class struggle led to half of world coming under communist control. This control dismantled with USSR in 80s. Communism proved as large tragedy for humanity. Estimated 100 million died in 100 years of communism. Mao’s great leap forward policy in communist china also caused deaths of unknown numbers of people. One big question left unanswered is if USSR under socialism and China under communism became more egalitarian in real sense. Answer would be emphatic no.

Inequality and discrimination in pre and post-independence India

Changing nature of inequality and discrimination in transforming societies impacted both pre and post-Independence India also, which is discussed below.

War of Mahabharata is considered to have happened between 5000BC to 3000BC. Epic book of Mahabharata (also called fifth Veda) has at least two instances of birth based discrimination in function based society of that time. In first instance a charioteer’s son Karna is refused warfare education by Brahmin teacher Drona as warfare knowledge is considered as sole prerogative of Kshtriaya- the warrior class and Brahmins- the educated class. Finally Karna gets this warfare education from another teacher Parshurama hiding his lineage. This angers his teacher to curse him. In second instance teacher Drona asks an accomplished warrior Eklavya- a tribesman to donate his right hand thumb, which Eklavya does.

Birth based discrimination was part of agrarian-artisanship based Indian society. Land is most important resource in agrarian society, but again its ownership was mostly with people higher up in strata. At the bottom of this socio-economic arrangement was underclass consisting of untouchables, locked at bottom in rigid social structure.

Affirmative action in pre-independence India

It is pertinent to discuss chronologically, four prominent figures out of many, who contributed to emancipation of underclass in pre-independence India.

In 1848 Mahatma Jotirao Govindrao Phule started first school for educating girls and underclass people. In 1873, he also started Satyashodhak Samaj (Truth-seekers’ Society) for education, social rights and political empowerment of underprivileged and women. Satyashodhak doctrines continued to inspire underclass politics of India after Mahatma Phule that later shaped Dr. Ambedkar’s attempts to end birth based discrimination.

Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj, king of princely state of Kolhapur from 1900–1922 undertook earliest known affirmative action as state policy in pre-independence India. Shahuji Maharaj made great efforts to remove underclass socio-economic inequality. He introduced reservation system for untouchables in government jobs. He granted the untouchables rights of equal access of public utilities. In every aspect of socio-economic life, stamp of his affirmative action policies could be seen. It would be apt to call Shahuji Maharaj’s Kolhapur state as first truly welfare state in undivided India.

Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar was an Indian jurist, economist, politician and social reformer. He was doctorate of economics from Columbia and LSE. His first major success in underclass emancipation was signing of Poona pact with Congress in 1940. One hundred forty seven legislature seats were reserved for the underclasses in the legislature of British India government out of general non-Muslim seats. He also secured commitment to secure a fair representation of the underclasses in services and educational grants.

Another prominent politician Jogendra Nath Mandal played important role in propelling underclass activism in pre-independence Bengal. In 1940 he Joined cabinet of the Muslim League chief minister Huseyn Suhrawardy in Bengal. After partition he become first law and labour minister of Islamic Republic of Pakistan. His politics of Dalit and Muslim unity died after creation of Pakistan. He came back to India in 1950, leaving millions of underclass Hindus as persecuted minorities in Pakistan.

For sake of classification we can say both Mahatma Phule and Shahuji Maharaj followed bottom-up approach to eliminate inequality. They both helped large section of socio-economic underclasses lifted up in the social strata.

On the other hand Dr. Ambedkar took top-down approach when he created opportunity for socio-economic underclasses to be given space in middle and top stratum of society. He helped a small section of from underclasses to become part of elite and middle-class.

Affirmative action in independent India:

Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar became first law minister of independent India. He was also chairman of constitution drafting committee. He ensured newly drafted Indian constitution carried the best ethos of democratic and welfare nation-states of that time. Scholar and historian Granville Austin described Indian Constitution as first and foremost social document.

Guarantees of individual freedom rights, abolishing of untouchability, reservation in education and employment for downtrodden sections was salient feature of this constitution. Underclasses and tribal population living in non-agrarian society were beneficiary of this affirmative action through.

Since independence many provincial governments introduced reservations for other underclasses (Other backward classes-OBCs) who were only marginally better in socio-economic hierarchy. This was done either due to electoral politics or due to genuine need for ensuring better upward mobility to people from these strata. In 1990, coalition government of V.P. Singh introduced reservations for other backward classes-OBCs in government jobs with economic exclusion criteria. In 2006, central government of Manmohan Singh further extended this reservation in higher education.

Analysing the impact of affirmative action on underclasses in Independent India

In a welfare state aim of affirmative actions and welfare measures is two-pronged. Top down support given by Dr. Ambedkar and other leaders to underclasses:-

A. Create positive discrimination in government employment for meritorious and educated people from underclass for rapid upward mobility. This helps in increasing presence of underclass people in every strata of society till very top.

B. Help to improve higher education of school educated underclass people through reservation in higher education so that they can take benefit of positive discrimination.

and Bottom up support given by Mahatma Phule and Shahuji Maharaj to underclasses:-

C. Provide literacy, school education and support health, family income and other parameters of human index of underclass.

D. Uplift overall level of underclass through gainful employment and anti- poverty measures.

Almost 70 years of Dr. Ambedkar’s guided affirmative action has helped in achieving objectives of point A and B. Underclasses got both educated and employed in government services. As a result two or more generations of many underclass households used positive discrimination to move up in socio-economic hierarchy. But now, very purpose of affirmative action is being defeated by actions of same people who have ascended the socio-economic strata. Many of them are doing well in life and as such do not need any reservation. As it is human nature, moral dilemma and self-interest is preventing elites to voluntarily give up reservation benefits. So Dr. Ambedkar’s original vision of broad-based socio-economic benefits to underclasses is being undermined every day. Irony is that genuine underclasses are now competing with elites-pseudo underclass, who are using affirmative action as birth based right. We come across many educated, high achiever young people, whose parents are well settled in bureaucracy still seeking government jobs through reservation.

For people stuck in socio-economic conditions explained in point C and point D above, Indian leaders including Dr. Ambedkar failed to develop a comprehensive policy of credible life altering support. These people formed substantial majority of both social and economic underclasses. Living in their pre-modern agrarian world they endlessly waited for state or private help. Both public and private elites of Independent India hardly invested in skill based trainings that best suitable these traditional artisan underclasses.

Liberalisation of economy in 1991 under Prime Minister PVN Rao, came as godsend gift in life of this low skilled and barely educated underclasses. Since then, fast growing economy lifted more people from underclasses and poverty than all affirmative and welfare schemes of Indian state and private elites put together.

Way forward for an equal opportunity welfare state

Reservation as affirmative action, in higher education and government jobs has only helped very small fraction of underclasses realise their dreams. There is need for continuing reservation due to historical discrimination. Reservation is necessary but not sufficient condition for uplifting underclasses.

In a mixed economy with very large private output, a welfare state must help underclasses acquire those skills that helps them earn decent livelihood. Quality primary education for all at their doorsteps is must. Equally important is skill development centres for all whether they complete primary education or not. Once skilled they will chase their dreams on their own. In a rapidly growing economy they will find and make their destiny. Through both institutionalised and informal skill development, underclasses should not just prepare themselves for jobs, but be self-employed and entrepreneurs. They should strive to become job-providers rather than job-seekers.

Purpose of a welfare state in post-modern society should be to create equal opportunity for a very large section of underclasses at bottom of socio-economic pyramid of modern society. Let them make capable of chasing their dreams for their brighter future. For this it is high time for an Indian welfare state to adopt bottom-up approach of Mahatama Phule and Rajarshi Shahuji Maharaj.

* In India, a country of more than 135 crore people with 50% or more below age of 25, as on May 2020, there are 13,348 vocational training Institutes (including both government and private ITIs)1 providing vocational training to around 19 lakh youths in 126 trades. Out of 15.3 lakhs schools (including private and government), 12.7 lakh are primary schools and 2.6 lakhs are secondary/higher secondary schools imparting basic education.

General Reference book- Sociology by Anthony Giddens